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The Ma Clique, also known as the Xibei San Ma (Chinese: 西北三馬, Three Mas of the Northwest), is a warlord state in northwestern China comprising the areas ruled by three families all with the surname Ma. As with most warlord cliques, it recognizes the Qing Empire as the legitimate government of China. The Ma Clique is bordered by Mongolia to the north, the Xinjiang Clique to the west, Tibet to the southwest, the Sichuan Clique to the south, and the Shanxi Clique and Qing Government to the east.


History[]

The beginnings of the Ma Clique go back to 1895, when an all-Muslim army unit called the Gansu Braves was formed, which would later distinguish itself fighting the foreign invaders during the Boxer Rebellion. The three Ma families of the northwest all came from the Gansu Braves, and they had already come to dominate the area by the time of the Xinhai Revolution. Though the leader of the Ma, Ma Anliang, was a conservative monarchist, he was pragmatic enough to recognize the republican government when its victory was beyond doubt, and he all banners be changed from "Long, long, long, live the reigning Emperor" to "Long live the Republic of China".

Ma Anliang died in 1918, and leadership of the clique passed to Ma Fuxiang in Gansu and Ma Qi in Qinghai. Qi was mostly focused on developing his province, whereas Fuxiang looked outward and involved himself in the power struggles in northern China, initially aligning with the Zhili Clique and Wu Peifu. In the early 1920s, the emergence of the Guominjun as a major power in northern China led to its leader Feng Yuxiang sending his armies to occupy lower Gansu. Fearful of Feng’s growing power, the leaders of the Ma Clique agreed to ally with him, however strains soon appeared between the two factions. The Guominjun’s presence placed a huge strain on the local economy and the more conservative Ma were increasingly alarmed by its connections to the KMT. When the unruly boy-general Ma Zhongying began to raid Guominjum outposts, the Ma generals started to switch sides and re-align with the Zhili. In 1926, the Ma succeeded in evicting the Guominjun from their domains, but the areas that had seen the occupation and fighting were devastated.

Ma Qi died in 1931, leaving his brother Ma Lin to succeed him as governor of Qinghai. Tensions in the south were growing, as independent-minded Tibet went to war with the Sichuan Clique over the province of Xikang. Ma Fuxiang intervened, preventing the Tibetans from taking the entire province and capturing the city of Yushu in the disputed Amdo region. Though the border dispute remained, the Ma victory forced Tibet to adopt a more defensive posture for the time being. In 1933, Fuxiang had a heart attack, indicating that it would soon be necessary to being preparing for his successor as governor and de facto leader of the clique.

Politics[]

Though appearing as a single entity, the Ma Clique is really an alliance of three different families of the same name, each with their own mostly-autonomous base of power. The first family fell into obscurity with the death of Ma Anliang, and since then the second and third families have dominated the north and south, respectively. The northern clique is led by Ma Fuxiang, governor of Gansu and Suiyuan, who by his power and seniority is also head of the Ma Clique overall. His nephew, Ma Hongbin, is governor of Ningxia, though his son Ma Hongkui is more likely to inherit the governorship of Gansu after Fuxiang’s death. The southern clique is led by Ma Lin, governor of Qinghai and brother of the late Ma Qi. Unlike other warlords, Lin rules with a relatively light hand and often defers to the authority of the provincial council in Xining, though this has also provided an opening for his nephew, military governor Ma Bufang, who is himself quite powerful and known to be desirous of his uncle’s position.

Military[]

Ma cavalry

Ma cavalry filing through the desert

As is typical of warlord states, the Ma military is loosely organized, with different generals leading their own personal armies and not always acting on the orders of their nominal superiors. Still, the Ma armies are generally considered the strongest in northwest China and have been able to keep the region generally peaceful. The Tianshui Arsenal provides the clique with the ability to produce its own small arms. Soldiers are recruited mostly from the Hui and other Muslim ethnic minorities and are highly renowned for their horsemanship. Though horses are primarily used as transport, many soldiers fight effectively from horseback, a possibility due to the scarcity and short range of most guns in the region.

Foreign Relations[]

The Ma Clique has tended to be pragmatic in recognizing the supremacy of whichever faction holds Beijing without much fuss. Their current relation with the Zhili Clique is quite amicable, and as many of the Ma generals are traditionalists, they tend to support the Qing government and the monarchy.

To the south and north of the Ma domain are, respectively, Tibet and Mongolia, both majority-Buddhist and traditionally hostile. Tibetan claims Amdo and continues to agitate in that region; the border remains ill-defined and the Ma’s presence is light. The border with Mongolia is also quite porous and Mongol bandits regularly cross over to raid Ma territory, actions which are often said to be implicitly supported by Ungern-Sternberg’s regime.

Relations with the neighboring Shanxi Clique are fraught, as there is still bitterness stemming from the war to drive out the Guominjun. However, there are also rumors that some Ma generals remain sympathetic to Feng Yuxiang.

Economy[]

The Ma domain lies in the transitional zone between the densely-populated heartlands and the deserts of Xinjiang. The economy is agrarian with most people employed in subsistence farming; the soil can be quite fertile when properly irrigated. A large part of the population in the north and west is pastoralist and unsettled, though the southeast has a number of small cities with minor industry.

Culture[]

The provinces of Gansu, Qinghai, Ningxia, and Suiyuan are home to a disproportionate amount of Hui, Chinese Muslims distinct from the Han Chinese yet also from the non-Chinese Muslims such as the Uyghers. All of the Ma families are Hui (“Ma” is the Chinese version of “Mohammad”) and within the Ma Clique there has been a tendency to favor the Hui over other ethnic groups. This has led to conflict with the Han, who wish to open up the provinces to greater Han immigration, as well as the minority Tibetans in Qinghai and Mongols in the north, many of whom would prefer to be united with their mother countries.

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