The National Government of the Republic of China,(中華民國國民政府) more commonly known as the Guangzhou/Canton Government( 廣州政府 )or the Kuomintang (KMT) Government(國民黨政府) was a nationalist counter-government in Southern China which contested the legitimacy of the Beiyang Government in Beijing and claimed authority over all of China in the decade between 1917 and 1927 at the height of the Chinese Warlord Era. Plagued by infighting, political factionalism and constant conflict with the north or with neighboring warlords, the Guangzhou Government during its whole existence only exerted effective control over a few selected provinces in the south, mainly Guangdong, Guangxi, Yunnan and Guizhou.
Despite almost continuous war and civil unrest, the Guangzhou Government was able to endure almost a decade, with short interruptions in exile: Under the firm lead of Sun Yat-sen, legendary long-time chairman of the Kuomintang, it weathered the hardships of the Constitutional Protection Movement (1917-1920, 1921-1922), several expulsions of the KMT from Guangzhou (1918, 1922) and the crippling power struggle following Sun's unexpected death in 1925, but eventually collapsed in the end stages of the Northern Expedition in early 1927, mainly due to the military intervention of the German Empire. Since then, the remnants of the KMT are scattered all over China and abroad, with no firm leadership except the semi-recognized Central Committee in Paris due to a party-internal split which occurred in the aftermath of the failed expedition.
History[]
- Main article: Timeline of Events in China 1911-1936
The roots of a Chinese counter-government in the south can already be found in the 19th century: During the many anti-Qing uprisings of the late 19th and the early 20th century, the fires of rebellion were ignited in Southern China, and this trend later continued during the 1911 Xinhai Revolution,the 1913 Second Revolution and the National Protection War of 1915/16. The reason for that, first and foremost, was the large distance of the southern provinces from the capital in Beijing as well as the high presence of military forces in the south due to the near proximity to the border with Indochina, Siam and India. Especially provinces such as Yunnan, Hunan, Guangxi and Guangdong have brought forth many famous Chinese freedom fighters of the 1910s and 1920s, among them Cai E, Huang Xing, Song Jiaoren, Chen Jiongming and of course the most famous Chinese revolutionary of all time, Dr. Sun Yat-sen.
After the death of Yuan Shikai in 1916, China collapsed into warlordism and factionalism as neither the northern government nor the southern rebels were able to exert their influence over all of the country; after all, the distance between Beijing and Guangzhou is longer than the distance between Berlin and Athens and traveling from Beijing to distant Dihua in Xinjiang takes longer than the maritime route from Wilhelmshaven to Daressalam. As a result, regional governance would fall into the hands of local bandits, army commanders or governors - in the south, the most powerful faction in the aftermath of the war against Yuan Shikai was without a doubt the National Protection Army, led by commanders such as Tang Jiyao, Li Liejun and Lu Rongting.
During that time, the Kuomintang (at that point still simply known as "Chinese Revolutionary Party") was in a more than dire state. In the aftermath of the Second Revolution, they had been outlawed and expelled from most of China, with the party slowly beginning to disintegrate as several cells, some of which openly opposed each other, were beginning to form in Shanghai and Japan; a majority of the party's members were not content with the powerful position Sun Yat-sen envisioned to take in within the party's leadership, among them most prominently Huang Xing, Hu Hanmin and Wang Jingwei. In the period between 1913 and 1917, Sun's movement almost became entirely sidelined and he spent his years exiled in Tokyo and the Shanghai International Settlement.
First Era: 1917-1920[]
This however changed in the summer of 1917. After Yuan's death, a new powerful dictator had arisen in Beijing, Duan Qirui of the Anhui Clique. Duan was known for his dubious ties to the Japanese and for his non-existing respect for the Chinese constitution, which especially enraged the Southern Chinese governors who highly valued the autonomy granted to them as part of said constitution. Cen Chunxuan, a famous politician and former Viceroy of Guangxi and Guangdong, met with progressive politician Liang Qichao and Guangxi Warlord Lu Rongting and officially established a counter-government in the south. Soon after, they would officially invite Sun Yat-sen to participate in their government, in an effort to rally more forces against the Beiyang Government; this can be considered to be the beginning of the First Constitutional Protection Movement, more specifically the Constitutional Protection War. Upon arriving in Guangzhou, Sun openly proclaimed the Beiyang Government a "false republic", stating that "there will be a true republic". Ironically, the administration Sun would soon establish was not based on the Provisional Constitution either; rather, it would be a de facto a military government - and Sun its Generalissimo.
Soon after, Sun Yat-sen sent out a call for the members of the original parliament in Beijing to relocate to Guangzhou and establish a new assembly. Additionally, the northern Naval Minister Cheng Biguang arrived in Guangzhou on 22 July with nine ships to support the Guangzhou Government. Many southern warlords, among them Yunnan's Tang Jiyao, Guangdong's Chen Bingkun, Hunan's Tang Yakai and Guizhou's Liu Xianshi also pledged their loyalty to counter Duan's abuse of power. The latter, enraged by yet another declaration of independence in the south, reacted with military force, mobilizing the mighty Beiyang Army and dispatching it southwards. However, the commanders he deployed, most prominently Zhili Clique member Wu Peifu, were not willing to take up arms against their southern brethren. While Tang Jiyao's forces advanced deep into Sichuan, the northern forces' invasion of Hunan turned into a complete disaster as Wu began to enter into armistice talks before the real fighting had even begun.
Embarrassed, Duan Qirui would resign, but soon it became apparent that Sun Yat-sen was not interested in a peaceful settlement with the north either. Therefore, a power struggle began to unfold itself in Guangzhou - in early summer 1918, Sun was ousted and the government was replaced with a seven-member cabinet system, known as the "Governing Committee", headed by Cen Chunxuan as Chief Executive.
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Sun, once again side-lined by his political opponents and military strongmen, leaves for Shanghai following the reorganization with his most loyal supporters, among them Chiang Kai-shek and Wang Jingwei. Following Sun's removal, the Southern warlords agree to Wu's diplomatic overtures: A peaceful settlement between north and south is arranged later that year, and on paper, China is united once again.
Besides the Navy, the Generalissimo Guards and twenty battalions of the Guangdong Army, Sun Yat-sen lacks strong support of military strength, and sometimes his orders are only effective in the Generalissmo Government in Guangzhou. In December, many important Southern military officers and political figures, most prominently Lu Rongting, Tang Jiyao and even Tang Shaoyi, a famous former Beiyang government politician and first Premier of the Republic in 1912/13, convene a conference, advocating for the removal of Sun, the recognition of Feng Guozhang's Northern presidency and formation a united government.
As time wore on, it became increasingly apparent that Sun and his followers possessed little actual power within the government, and most of it was in the hands of the warlords, particularly those of the Guangxi Clique. In early 1918 the military government was reorganized, now being led by a seven-member executive council known as the Governing Committee. Besides Sun, all of the seats were controlled by members of the Yunnan or Guangxi Cliques. Realizing his marginalization, Sun resigned his seat and left for Shanghai. Cen Chunxuan became the new generalissimo, completing the Guangxi Clique’s takeover of the southern government. An armistice was signed with the northern warlords, but talks for permanent reconciliation of the two governments dragged on into 1919.
In Shanghai, Sun spent time mending old relationships and plotting his return. On October 10th, 1919 the KMT was formally reorganized with the new title Chinese Kuomintang. The political field had changed as the Zhili Clique ousted the Anhui Clique for control of the northern government. When the Guangxi Clique moved to explore unification with the Zhili, the KMT denounced them, beginning the Second Constitutional Protection Movement. The southern parliament moved to Yunnan in August of 1920, as tensions between Tang’s Yunnan Clique and the Guangxi Clique were rising. At the same time, former governor Chen gathered his exiled forces in neighboring Fujian and invaded west on the 11th. His armies were able to push Guangxi warlord Lu Rongting out of Guangdong by October, and in November Sun and the KMT were able to return to Guangzhou.
Politics[]
Throughout the existence of the Guangzhou Government, it went through four different stages, all of them with radically different government systems:
Phase 1: Constitutional Protection Junta (1917-1921)[]
A broad coalition of southern warlords, governors and civil servants, remnants of the National Protection Army, dissatisfied northern former members of parliament and the Kuomintang - due to the KMT not taking in the most dominant role, the Constitutional Protection Junta still made use of the Republican five-colored flag and other symbols affiliated with the Xinhai Revolution while still being in use of the Beiyang Government instead of typical KMT symbolism such as the Blue Sky with a White Sun. While Sun officially acted as the junta's generalissimo, the power continued to lay in the hands of local warlords - this enabled Sun's easy disempowerment and expulsion in 1918, as he was not in a position to counter the strong influence of the military within the government.
After Sun's exile to Shanghai, the junta continued to exist, this time however under the lead of a seven-member cabinet headed by Cen Chunxuan, with the true power laying in the hands of pro-Zhili Guangxi warlord Lu Rongting. At this point however, it couldn't be considered a true counter-government anymore, as the junta's leadership had entered into reunification talks with the Beiyang Government via the Zhili Clique. These talks however would fail due to the Zhili-Anhui War breaking out in the meantime, throwing the north into chaos and disarray, and many opportunists in the south deciding to realign with the KMT to stop Lu Rongting from becoming too powerful: In late 1920, a revolt of Guangdong-based warlord Chen Jiongming, reluctantly supported by Yunnan, expelled Lu and Cen from Guangzhou and enabled Sun to return from Shanghai.
Phase 2: Government of the Republic of China in Guangzhou (1921-1922)[]
After Sun Yat-sen left Guangzhou on May 21, 1918, in July 1920, he instigated Xu Shaozhen to lead his troops to attack Guangzhou, where the Guangxi clique was entrenched, and set off prelude to the pursuit of Guizhou. Later, Xu Chongzhi served as the front-line commander, and on August 22, Huizhou was captured. On October 22, the Guangdong army launched a general attack on Guangzhou, and on the 28th it was restored to Guangzhou. Sun returned to Guangzhou on November 28 to reorganize the Constitutional Protection Junta. On January 12, 1921, the Extraordinary Congress resumed its meeting in Guangzhou. On April 2, the Extraordinary Congress met and announced the abolition of the Constitutional Protection Junta , claiming to organize the official government of the Republic of China . On April 7, Sun Yat-sen was elected as a "extraordinary president ", and he took office in Guangzhou on May 5. The " Second Constitutional Protection Movement" begins. fter Sun Yat-sen was elected, he issued a statement at home and abroad, and wrote an open letter to the president of the Beiyang government , Xu Shichang , to persuade him to voluntarily resign, and drafted the cabinet.
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the supreme leader of the Republic of China's army and navy base camp was Sun Yat-sen , the premier of the Kuomintang . Sun Yat-sen implemented a party-state system , with the one-party Chinese Nationalist Party leading the government. It has the Secretariat, the Military Service Office, the Legal Affairs Bureau, the Audit Bureau, the Accounting Department, the General Affairs Department, the Ministry of the Interior, the Ministry of Finance, the Ministry of Military Affairs, the Ministry of Construction, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, the Ministry of the Navy, the General Staff Department and the Dali Yuan .
Phase 4: National Government of the Republic of China in Guangzhou (1925-1927)[]
The inauguration ceremony of the National Government was held on Yuehua Road in Guangzhou
On March 12, 1925, Sun Yat-sen passed away in Beijing. Subsequently on 10 On May 23, the third plenary meeting of the Central Executive Committee of the Kuomintang issued a declaration, stating that the Beijing government (at that time Duan Qirui was temporary in power and the acting head of state of the Beijing government) disregarded the interests of the people , Collusion with imperialism , and never cooperate with it. Chiang Kai-shek published "A Letter to All Soldiers" for the army, returned to Guangzhou to pay homage, organized Whampoa Academy affairs, returned to Command the army, on June 14, Kuomintang Central Executive Committee in the Fourteenth Meeting to the restructuring of the Army and Navy Marshal stronghold in to the national government and on July 1 announced the National Government Organization Law, the National Government then on the same day in Guangzhou was proclaimed in the "Outline of the National Government and Provincial Government Organizations." passed on June 28. The highest decision-making body of the National Government was the National Government Committee with the Initial Sixteen members of the committee being Wang Jingwei as chairman , Hu Hanmin , Dai Chuanxian , Yu Youren , Xu Qian , Zhang Ji , Tan Yankai , Xu Chongzhi , Lin Sen , Liao Zhongkai , Wu Chaoshu , Gu Yingfen , Zhu Peide , Sun Fo , and Cheng Qian were members,. In addition the National Government Military Committee was set up with Chiang Kai-shek , Wang Jingwei and Tan Yankai as the standing committee members with Wang Jingwei as the concurrent chairman. The Central Committee of the Kuomintang also renamed all the National Foundation armies as well as party army in Guangdong to the National Revolutionary Army. In the latter half of 1925 an assassination attempt on Liao Zhongkai led to Hu Hanmin alongside Xu Chongzhi being expelled and executed after being accused of planning the attempt on Liao . In the aftermath Liao Zhongkai subsequently assumed the position of President of the executive Yuan
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. The Nationalist Government planned the Northern Expedition of the National Revolutionary Army .
Military[]
Throughout the existence of the Guangzhou Government, it Military forces went through several Reorganization and redesignations
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Constitutional Protection Army[]
During the First Constitutional Protection War the Government Military forces were primarily made up of the warlord armies of Guangdong, Guangxi, Yunnan and Guizhou. The designation of 'Constitutional Protection Army' being limited to Guangdong with Lu Rongting's Old Guangxi Clique and its Forces keeping its original name, the 'National Protection Army', coming from the National Production War. The Forces from Yunnan were called Jingguojun or 'National Pacification Army'.
Generally speaking, Armies answering directly to Sun were called Constitution Protection Armies, while many retained their warlord names.
National Foundation Army[]
In Early 1924, Sun Yat-sen renamed the Guangdong, Hunan, Yunnan armies to National Foundation Army in an attempt to reduce reliance on neighboring, opportunistic warlords, and to build a power base loyal to him from scratch. For this, Sun needed experienced, trained soldiers and military officers who would never question their loyalty to the generalissimo and the Kuomintang, and thus the aim of the Guangzhou Goverment became to establish a modern military academy, akin to the ones in Baoding and Kunming, which had brought forth the crème de la crème of modern China's standing armies' officer corps and general staff. With secret French financial and diplomatic support and Red Russian Advisors and later the British , Sun established the Whampoa Military Academy on Changzhou Island in Guangzhou, opening its gates in early May of 1925. At this point Sun would also make use of gambling and opium trade to finance the construction of the academy and eliminate corruption within his own government's ranks.
National Revolutionary Army[]
in 1925 The Central Committee of the Kuomintang renamed National Foundation Army and the army of the party in Guangdong to the National Revolutionary Army, the name that remains since. As a part of this reformation, The Army and Navy Marshal strongholds were intrgrated into the national government . in latter half of 1925, Chiang Kai-shek assumed effective control over the NRA as its commander-in-chief, with Li Jishen as the chief of staff, Bai Chongxi as the acting chief of staff for the deputy chief of staff, and Deng Yanda as the director of the political department, and Zhou Enlai as the deputy director of the political department In preparation for the northern Expedition
National Revolutionary Army Order of battle (1925 to 1927)
The First Army of the National Revolutionary Army (formerly the Huangpu Party Army)
The Second Army of the National Revolutionary Army (formerly the Hunan National Foundation Army)
The Third Army of the National Revolutionary Army (formerly the Yunnan National Foundation Army Note the Third Army reverted to this designation in 1928 )
Fourth Army of the National Revolutionary Army (formerly Guangdong National Foundation Army Note The 4th Army disintegrated in 1927 With the largest portion under Chen Mingshu Retreated towards Guangdong Joined the reformed Guangdong army Under Chen Jiongming )
The Fifth Army of the National Revolutionary Army (formerly the Fortune Army )
The Sixth Army of the National Revolutionary Army (originally attacking Hubei Army , Guard Army , Chaomei Army )
Seventh Army of the National Revolutionary Army ( it still retains its original designation Post Northern expedition Currently in Yunnan )
Eighth Army of the National Revolutionary Army ( Tang Shengzhi's army )
Foreign Relations[]
The Guangzou government's recognition was limited, but had strong ties with the Commune of France, who provided the NRA with arms, supplies and foreign personnel to help train the fledgling army. the most common foreign personnel to be sent by the Commune were former Bolsheviks, who had escaped the fall of Lenin's Russia to Paris, and enlisted their services to the Syndicalist cause.